Pedagogical models and approaches

Case-based learning is, by its nature, an authentic learning process grounded in real-world contexts. Topics are explored through described cases or examples, which are then analysed and processed. Theoretical concepts are also studied through these concrete cases.

Typical processes that facilitate learning in case-based approaches include, for example, problem-solving, analysis, comparison, classification, synthesis and abstraction (developing higher levels of abstraction and perspectives).

Case-based teaching is used to solve emerging problems. It is student-centred, interactive and anchored in real situations (such as press clippings, stories, photographs or videos). In these teaching situations, students work on a specific case using their prior experiences and the knowledge and skills acquired during their studies. In addition to providing knowledge, case-based learning aims to develop analytical reasoning, collaboration and communication skills, the ability to apply knowledge, and creativity.

Challenge-based learning (CBL) is closely related to problem-based learning and other similar pedagogical models. However, a distinctive feature of CBL is that the multidisciplinary learning team defines a challenge based on a real societal phenomenon. The aim is to develop a sustainable, user-oriented solution to the self-formulated challenge that can be widely applied. This pedagogical approach combines team learning, deeper learning and multidisciplinary problem-solving. The responsibility for both individual and team learning rests with the learners themselves. They are supported by a team coach who facilitates the chosen method, such as the design process, and supports the team members in achieving their goals.

Role of the learner:

• Professional identity is strengthened.
• Self-management and competence management are enhanced.
• General transferable skills develop.
• Teamwork/learning skills develop.
• Sense of relevance is reinforced.
• Systemic intelligence evolves.

Role of the team coach:

• Encourage interaction and collaboration among learners.
• Build trust through empathy.
• Ensure feedback between learners.
• Emphasise purpose and goals.
• Provide encouragement and recognition.
• Provide support through various tools.

Collaborative learning refers to a learning process in which all group members share a common assignment and goal and work together to build shared meaning, commitment and understanding through interaction (see, for example, Dillenbourg, 1999; Baker et.al., 1999; Järvelä & Häkkinen, 2002).

A key prerequisite is paying attention to the development of the student community, as not all activities labelled “collaborative learning” truly reflect the collaborative learning model. The members of the student community have a common foundation as well as a common goal for their learning.

Cooperative learning refers to working in small groups to achieve a common goal. The goals are to ensure that students are committed to the learning process through collaboration and to teach them collaboration skills and a sense of responsibility for their own learning as well as that of their peers. In cooperative learning, the focus is on the shared product and on ensuring that everyone learns the same content and participates in achieving the common goal. Discussion, reflection and the group’s self-assessment are central learning methods in this approach. Cooperative work requires a goal-oriented approach, responsibility and commitment.

One model of cooperative learning is the jigsaw technique, in which each student belongs to a home group. Members of these home groups are temporarily assigned to expert groups for thematic work.

Various digital environments can be used within this model to support learning.

Deeper learning is generally defined as the attainment of higher-order thinking (HOT) skills, enabling students or learning communities to analyse, interpret, study, compare, evaluate, construct and create new knowledge. When graduates enter the professional world, they are expected to demonstrate these higher-order thinking skills, both now and in the future.

When planning and designing teaching, it is important to consider several factors that promote deeper learning. The learning community is regarded as a key element and motivator when deeper learning is the goal. Authenticity and authentic learning provide a strong foundation for collaborative knowledge construction aimed at achieving deeper learning. Collaborative knowledge building and, in particular, dialogical collaborative knowledge building are considered to guide students towards deeper learning. Self-paced study, designed for different stages of the learning process, also supports deeper learning. Project-based work is recognised as an effective way to foster the higher-order thinking skills associated with deeper learning.

Dialogical learning, or dialogue in learning and knowledge construction, is regarded as a highly multifaceted approach to teaching and learning. The DIANA (Dialogical Authentic Netlearning Activity Model) model, designed at the start of the century (see Aarnio & Enqvist, 2016), supports teachers in structuring the learning process through dialogical, collaborative knowledge construction. Recent studies have shown that dialogue skills, and their development, require coaching (see Ruhalahti, 2019). To address this need, dialogical methods were designed under the guidance of Helena Aarnio (2012).

This collaborative learning model was originally developed by Johannes Partanen from the Team Academy at JAMK University of Applied Sciences in 1990 and further refined by TAMK Proakatemia from 1999 onwards. It is based on a holistic conception of human beings, a pragmatic view of knowledge (where knowledge and action are combined and continuously verified) and a socio-constructivist approach to learning.

At the core of this model are membership and ownership within the learning communities (such as the training programme’s community and the team company) that serve as the main frame of reference for the learning process, team coaching as the primary guidance method, real business operations (projects) and client relationships, as well as dialogue as the key method for illustrating the team’s shared situational understanding, goals and actions and for building new knowledge and fostering reflection.

Entrepreneurial team learning is a demanding relational process in which self-directed collective actions as well as dialogical reflection and the creation of new knowledge intertwine into a self-sustaining learning cycle aimed at achieving positive and lasting change in material and social environments and conditions. This process is based on cooperation, requiring participants (team members and coaches) to bravely uphold the shared values and goals, maintain commitment to mutual support and collaboration, and ensure that dialogue remains the primary goal of all communication.

Flipped learning transforms the entire learning culture, from the role of the teacher to the structure of learning events. The learning process often proceeds at the student’s own pace and independently. For example, the teacher does not control learning by checking whether required assignments have been completed. This approach can lead to situations where not all students learn everything.

Flipped learning is often confused with the pedagogical model of the flipped classroom. However, the flipped classroom is a more recent teaching method and refers primarily to a technical change. The model originated from the practice of creating teaching videos and making them available to students online.

Phased teaching according to the inquiry-based learning model proceeds as follows:

• creating a context
• setting problems
• developing students’ working theories
• critical evaluation
• acquiring new, deeper information
• designing specified questions
• creating gradually refined theories
• sharing the process
• publishing the results.

The Institute for the Languages of Finland defines the phenomenon as “an event, a series of events, a fact or a state of affairs that manifests itself in some way and can be observed”. Phenomenon-based learning refers to studying and understanding a specific observable matter. Other terms used for this approach include phenomena-centred learning, phenomena-oriented learning, extensive multidisciplinary study modules, integrated and de-fragmented studies, thematic studies and cross-disciplinary teaching.

In problem-based learning, students work on real-life cases, challenges and problems that they may encounter in professional practice. This approach enables them to apply the knowledge they have acquired in practical contexts. Students typically work in small groups and explore the subject through open-ended questions. The teacher’s role during these group sessions (known as tutorials) is to guide the learning process without providing ready-made answers. Commitment and a sense of community in different learning environments highlight the importance of teamwork. The stages of the PBL process are based on synchronous and asynchronous online work as well as both independent and group-based activities in face-to-face and remote settings. The pedagogical and technical solutions must be carefully planned to support the combination of all these activities.

Key features of problem-based learning:

• The focus is on the student.
• Learning occurs within a student community/small group.
• The instructor acts as a tutor or facilitator.
• Students typically solve real-life problems connected to the world of work.
• Solutions are developed either in a self-directed manner or through a more structured, guided manner. Various digital environments support the process (including documentation, collaborative working, and guidance).

In project-based learning, practical activities are organised into a project with clear goals, schedules and resources. The participants have clearly defined roles: students learn through concrete production, research or development projects, or real client work. Students aim to solve real-world problems by identifying the problem, gathering information, discussing ideas, collecting and analysing data, working on implementation, interpreting results, drawing conclusions, and communicating their findings and insights to others.

Simulations refer to various learning situations that replicate real working-life scenarios. They may focus on developing professional expertise or achieving a basic level of competence. A simulation can be carried out using simulators, simulation software or other methods that recreate real situations or phenomena. The aviation and security sectors have long utilised simulations. In recent years, the use of simulations in teaching and learning has increased significantly, particularly in the healthcare sector. Simulation scenarios and their implementation models vary across fields and depend on the available facilities and resources. Simulation scenarios designed for teaching allow students to practice, for example, their communication and social skills, whereas constructed simulations are intended for online environments and may include game-like elements. In addition, various patient simulations support learning and teaching through experiential practice. The concept of a simulation differs depending on the field of education.

Cohen and Bailey (1997) provide a systemic definition of a team as “a collection of individuals who are interdependent in their tasks, who share responsibility for outcomes, who see themselves and are seen by others as an intact social entity embedded in one or more larger social systems”. From a learning perspective, the most notable aspects of this definition are the team members’ interdependence and shared responsibility for outcomes, both of which have significant implications for pedagogical design, supporting structures, instruction (such as team coaching) and assessment practices.

Considering two key requirements for effective teamwork – the ability of the team to make sense of their shared situation and identify ways to create value within it, and the ability to coordinate their actions to increase that value in a meaningful way – team learning can be conceptualised as a process that strengthens the team’s capacity to build shared awareness of the situation and its potential value and to coordinate actions effectively towards increasing that value.

Sharing: the process of communication within the team during which knowledge, insights, competencies, beliefs, opinions and thoughts are exchanged.

Co-construction (of the meaning) or sense-making: the process through which team members confront and integrate what is shared about their work and the project at hand.

Constructive conflict or tension: the process of uncovering and integrating diverse identities, perspectives and opinions within the team (Dochy & Segers, 2018; Decuyper, Dochy & Van den Bossche, 2010).

Facilitating all of these processes is the responsibility of both the team members in a learning team and their team coach.